It is obviously impossible to describe the wide range of circumstances under which individual translators work, or to define adequately all the variety of procedures they employ for different types of translations. However. some of the principal steps in procedure employed by a competent translator can be outlined, as follows:

1. Reading over the entire document. Before actual translating can be started, or even a preliminary background study can be undertaken. it is essential to read the entire "message".

2. Obtaining background information. It is important that the translator obtain all information available about the document in question, including the circumstances of its writing, publication, and distribution, its relationship to other documents of a similar type (whether coming from the same source or not), and any detailed studies of the document by competent scholars. For the Bible translator, this means a thorough acquaintance with the opinions of leading commentators on the Scripture text in question.

3. Comparing existing translations of the text. A translator should not be guilty of merely copying the work of others, but by studying what others have done he has a greater chance of profiting by their experience as well as avoiding the errors they may have made.

4. Making a first draft of sufficiently comprehensive units. No translation should proceed word by word or even phrase by phrase, but should take as a minimal unit the longer sentences or shorter paragraphs. In writing out or dictating such units, the translator should not hcsitate to cmploy boldness and freedom of expression. Moreover, the first draft should aim at fullness of expression, rather than a bare minimum of equivalence.

5. Revising the first draft after a short lapse of time. It is important that a first draft be left "to cool" at least for a day or so, so that one can return to the work with a greater objectivity and detachment. During the process of revision one can (a) prune out unnecessary words, (b) rcarrange the component parts, (c) correct errors in meaning and style, and (d) give special attention to the connection between basic units.

6. Reading aloud for style and rhythm. Because of the primacy of oral over written forms of language, it is essential that the form of a translation be read aloud in order to test its style and rhythm.

7. Studying the reactions of receptors by the reading of the text by another person. The reactions of receptors to the hearing of a text are important indicators of the validity of the overall impression of a translation. The translator himself can note the points at which the reader hesitates (often marking awkward style or overly heavy communication load due to word choice), as well as expressions of comprehension or misunderstanding in the hearers. Moreover, the translator can question hearers about matters which may not have been clear and items which could lead to misunderstanding. This may be done by direct questions about content or by asking certain persons to explain the substance of what they have heard.

8. Submitting a translation to the scrutiny of other competent translators. Such persons may be either stylists in the receptor language or experts in the meaning of the source-language document.

9. Revising the text for publication. This last step in procedure involves not only attention to comments made by others, but should include very close attention to orthographic detail, in order to avoid extensive modifications in the printer's proofs.

In many instances certain obvious changes must be made in these steps. For example, many professional translators need not employ steps 7 and 8; other translators find it necessary to expand them into an extensive series of checks of usage, with many informants coming from various dialectal areas. For certain "pioneering" situations there are, of course, no existing translations to compare; step 3 then becomes irrelevant. Moreover, when there are no other translators who are particularly competent in the style of the receptor language, only certain limited aspects of step 8 can be followed. Nevertheless, in so far as these nine steps can be applied to a particular situation, they are fully justified and are highly recommended to the translator.

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