The patient is then wheeled into the operating room and placed on the operating table. A blood pressure cuff is attached to one arm just above the elbow to measure the blood pressure at regular intervals, and an intravenous(fV) line attached to a catheter is inserted into the other arm. This allows intravenous solution to be given to help maintain the body fluids and also to provide a way to administer essential drugs during the operation. The site of the operation is draped (sterile sheets placed around the operation site), leaving an opening at the incision area. A mask may be placed over the patient's mouth and nose.

or a tube may be placed in the trachea through which a general anesthetic and oxygen are given. Some types of anesthetic drugs are administered directly with a hypodermic needle. Donated blood of the same type as the patient's may be on hand in case a transtusion becomes necessary. The surgeon is assisted by a large staff. There is usually an assistant surgeon or two, who are probably interns or residents. The patient's physician may also be present. The chiet operating-room nurse supervises the operating room nursing staff, which includes a scrub nurse in charge of surgical supplies and equipment: a circulating nurse, not dressed in a sterile gown, who is in charge of activities outside the sterile theater; and an orderly to help move the patient.

An important member of the surgical team is the anesthesiologist. This specialist is responsible for administering the anes thetic that renders the patient insensible of pain during the operation. Great care must be taken to provide enough anesthetic to keep the patient unconscious, yet not so much that it witl dangerously lower the patient's respiration. pulse, or blood pressure. The patient's history of allergies must also be considered in determining the type of anesthetic that is to be used. Anesthetics probably present the greatest risk to the patient during an operation. Improper use could cause severe allergic reaction resulting in shock or cardiac or respiratory arrest. Surgery requires a large variety of specialized equipment. In addition to the special operating table, there are high intensity lights and the anesthesia machine. A main instrument table is covered with a large collection of scalpels. forceps, suture needles. retractors. and other instruments. There are vacuum machines to suck out excess blood and other fluids from the part of the body being operated upon. Containers ot blood and dextrose are on hand. There are wash basins and refuse bins. A special sponge stand holds the used sponges (cotton pads used for mopping blood).

An operation may be completed in iess than an hour. or it may last for several hours. Before the patient is sewn up, the used sponges and the instruments are always counted by the circulating nurse and one other person to ensure that none have been left inside the patient's body. Once surgery is completed, careful postoperative care is begun. The wound is carefully bandaged, and the dressings are changed frequently. The patient is wheeled into a recovery room and kept there until awakening from the anesthetic. Often, the patient is then taken to an intensive care unit. where the vital signs are carefully monitored.

Once out of danger. the patient is taken to a hospital room or ward. Early ambulation is prescribed to prevent blood clots and bed sores. When the services of the hospital staff and equipment are no longer needed, the patient is returned home or to an intermediate-care facility, where recuperation is completed. During the first few days after surgery. a routine is followed which helps to prevent many of the problems that have killed surgical patients in the past. The hospital room is kept as sterile as possible through the use of antiseptics. Pneumonia is prevented by antibiotics and respiratory therapy. The development of embolisms(clots which form in a blood vessel and travel to other, critical sites) is reduced by early postoperative ambutation. And shock, which used to be the most common cause of postoperative death. is held to a minimum by the use ot blood and plasma transfusion.

Another risk associated with surgery is human error. A patient trusts the surgeon to be competent and conscientious and presumes that everything possible will be done to make the operation a success. But mistakes may happen which result in serious injury to the patient. Hospitals and most medical professionals carry medical malpractice (professional liability  insurance to compensate the patient for any injury resulting from negligence.

Although modern surgery can produce amazing results with minimal risk. the benefits are likely to carry a huge price tag. Despite a substantial reduction in the number of days one spends in a hospital for an operation, even the simplest surgery is likely to cost many thousands of dollars when taking into account the cost of the hospital room, the operating room, the anesthesiologist's charge, and the surgeon's fee. along with the expenses for drugs and equipment. People not covered by medical insurance can have their savings wiped out by the costs of surgery and related medical care.

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